E-ISSN 2231-170X | ISSN 2231-1696
 
2021, Vol: 11, Issue: 2
11/2Current Issue Online FirstArchiveAims and ScopeAbstracting & IndexingMost Accessed ArticlesMost Downloaded ArticlesMost Cited Articles

Review Article 


Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen.

Cited by (10)

Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is responsible for more number of deaths world wide. The muscles and vessels of heart and blood transporting roads become vulnerable portion in most of the CVD. The role of hypertension and cholesterols of different density triglycerides in induction and progression of cardiovascular disease is discussed in this present review. Besides this the potential biomarkers such as homocysteine, fibrinogen, D-dimer and thrombin/antithrombin III complex, interleukin and serum amyloid in prognosis is also discussed in this review.

Key words: Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, Fibrinogen, HDL, LDL


 
ARTICLE TOOLS
Abstract
PDF Fulltext
How to cite this articleHow to cite this article
Citation Tools
Related Records
 Articles by Chittakath Shaima
Articles by Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi
Articles by Naser Kutty Shaheen
on Google
on Google Scholar


REFERENCES
1. Celermajer DS, Chow CK, Marijon E, Anstey NM, Woo KS. Cardiovascular disease in the developing world: prevalences, patterns and the potential of early disease detection. J Am Coll. Cardiol. 2012; 60(14):1207-1216.
2. Murray CJL, Lopez AD. Global burden of disease and injury series. Vols. I and II, Global Health Statistics. Boston: Harvard School of Public Health 1996; p.4.
3. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 1998; 9(12 Suppl):16-23.
4. Cannon CP. Cardiovascular disease and modifiable cardiometabolic risk factors. Clin Cornerstone 2007; 8(3):11-28. [DOI via Crossref]   
5. Mahmood SS, Levy D, Vasan RS, Wang TJ. The Framingham Heart Study and the epidemiology of cardiovascular disease: a historical perspective. Lancet 2014; 383(9921):999-1008. [DOI via Crossref]   
6. Braunwald E. Shattuck lecture--cardiovascular medicine at the turn of the millennium: triumphs, concerns, and opportunities. N Engl J Med. 1997; 337(19):1360-1369. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
7. Kannel WB. Range of serum cholesterol values in the population developing coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 1995; 76(9):69C-77C.
8. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Rose L, Buring JE, Cook NR. Comparison of C–reactive protein and low–density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2002; 347(20):1557-1565. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
9. Khot UN, Khot MB, Bajzer CT, Sapp SK, Ohman EM, Brener SJ, Ellis SG, Lincoff AM, Topol EJ. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2003; 290(7):898-904. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
10. Greenland P, Knoll MD, Stamler J, Neaton JD, Dyer AR, Garside DB, Wilson PW. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA. 2003; 290(7):891-897. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
11. Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12–yr cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care.1993; 16(2):434-444. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
12. Franklin SS, Khan SA, Wong ND, Larson MG, Levy D. Is pulse pressure useful in predicting risk for coronary heart disease? The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 1999; 100(4):354-360. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
13. van den Hoogen PCW, Feskens EJ, Nagelkerke NJ, Menotti A, Nissinen A, Kromhout D. The relation between blood pressure and mortality due to coronary heart disease among men in different parts of the world. Seven Countries Study Research Group. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342(1):1-8. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
14. Rodgers A, MacMahon S. Blood pressure and the global burden of cardiovascular disease. Clin Exp Hypertens. 1999; 21(5-6): 543-552.
15. Wingard DL, Barrett–Connor E. Heart disease and diabetes. In: Harris MI, Cowie CC, Stern MP, Boyko EJ, Reiber GE, and Bennett PH, eds. Diabetes in America, 2nd edition. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, pp. 429-448, 1995.
16. Bierman EL. George Lyman Duff Memorial Lecture. Atherogenesis in diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb. 1992; 12(6):647-656.
17. Herlitz J, Karlson BW, Edrardsson N, Emanuelsson H, Hjalmarson A. Prognosis in diabetics with chest pain or other symptoms suggestive of acute myocardial infarction. Cardiology. 1992; 80(3-4):237-245.
18. Miettinen H, Lehto S, Salomaa V, Mahonen M, Niemela M, Haffner SM, Pyorala K, Tuomilehto J. Impact of diabetes on mortality after the first myocardial infarction. The FINMONICA Myocardial Infarction Register Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1998; 21(1):69-75. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
19. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long–term complications in insulin–dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993; 329(14):977-986. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
20. Durrington. P. Dyslipidaemia. Lancet 2003; 362(9385):717- 731. [DOI via Crossref]   
21. Prospective Studies Collaboration, Lewington S, Whitlock G, Clarke R, Sherliker P, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R. Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths. Lancet 2007; 370(9602):1829-1839. [DOI via Crossref]   
22. Neaton JD, Wentworth D. Serum cholesterol, blood pressure, cigarette smoking, and death from coronary heart disease: overall findings and differences by age for 316,099 white men. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group. Arch Intern Med. 1992; 152(1):56-64. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
23. Verschuren WM, Jacobs DR, Bloemberg BP, Kromhout D, Menotti A, Aravanis C, Blackburn H, Buzina R, Dontas AS, Fidanza F, et al. Serum total cholesterol and long-term coronary heart disease mortality in different cultures: Twentyfive-year follow-up of the seven countries study. JAMA. 1995; 274(2):131-136. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
24. Stamler J, Wentworth D, Neaton JD. Is relationship between serum cholesterol and risk of premature death from coronary heart disease continuous and graded? Findings in 356,222 primary screenees of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). JAMA. 1986; 256(20):2823-2828. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
25. Law MR. Lowering heart disease risk with cholesterol reduction: evidence from observational studies and clinical trials. Eur Heart J 1999; 1(Suppl S):S3-S8.
26. People's Republic of China–United States Cardiovascular and Cardiopulmonary Epidemiology Research Group. An epidemiological study of cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary disease risk factors in four populations in the People's Republic of China. Baseline report from the P.R.C.–U.S.A. Collaborative Study. Circulation. 1992; 85(3):1083-1096.
27. Law MR, Wald NJ, Wu T, Hackshaw A, Bailey A. Systematic underestimation of association between serum cholesterol concentration and ischaemic heart disease in observational studies: data from the BUPA study. BMJ. 1994; 308(6925):363-366. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]    [PMC Free Fulltext]   
28. Stary HC, Chandler AB, Dinsmore RE, Fuster V, Glagov S, Insull W, Rosenfeld ME, Schwartz CJ, Wagner WD, Wissler RW. A definition of advanced types of atherosclerotic lesions and a histological classification of atherosclerosis. A report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1995; 92(5):1355-1374. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
29. Libby P. Atherosclerosis: the new view. Sci Am. 2002; 286(5):46-55. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
30. Fuster V. Elucidation of the role of plaque instability and rupture in acute coronary events. Am. J. Cardiol. 1995; 76(9):24C-33C.
31. Austin MA, Hokanson JE, Edwards KL. Hypertriglyceridemia as a cardiovascular risk factor. Am J Cardiol. 1998; 81(4A):7B-12B.
32. Avins AL, Neuhaus JM. Do triglycerides provide meaningful information about heart disease risk? Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160(13):1937-1944. [DOI via Crossref]   
33. Simons LA, Simons J, Friedlander Y, McCallum J. Cholesterol and other lipids predict coronary heart disease and ischemic stroke in the elderly, but only in those below 70 years. Atherosclerosis. 2001; 159(1):201-208. [DOI via Crossref]   
34. Sharett AB, Ballantyne CM, Coady SA. Coronary heart disease prediction from lipoprotein cholesterol levels, triglycerides, lipoprotein (a), apolipoproteins A–1 and B, and HDL density subfractions. The Atherosclerosis Risk (ARIC) in Communities Study. Circulation 2001; 104:1108-1113.
35. Criqui MH, Heiss G, Cohn R, Cowan LD, Suchindran CM, Bangdiwala S, Kritchevsky S, Jacobs DR, O'Grady HK, Davis CE. Plasma triglyceride level and mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1993; 328(17):1220- 1225. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
36. Sarwar N, Danesh J, Eiriksdottir G, Sigurdsson G, Wareham N, Bingham S, Boekholdt SM, Khaw KT, Gudnason V. Triglycerides and the risk of coronary heart disease: 10,158 incident cases among 262,525 participants in 29 Western prospective studies. Circulation 2007; 115(4):450-458. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
37. Manninen V, Tenkanen L, Koskinen P, Huttunen JK, Manttari M, Heinonen OP, Frick MH. Joint effects of serum triglyceride and LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations on coronary heart disease risk in the Helsinki Heart Study. Implications for treatment. Circulation. 1992; 85(1):37-45. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
38. Havel RJ. Role of triglyceride–rich lipoproteins in progression of atherosclerosis. Circulation. 1990; 81(2):694-696. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
39. Grundy SM. Low–density lipoprotein, non–high–density lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein B as targets of lipid–lowering therapy. Circulation. 2002; 106(20):2526-2529. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
40. Krauss RM. Atherogenicity of triglyceride–rich lipoproteins. Am J Cardiol. 1998; 81(4A):13B-17B.
41. Takeichi S, Yukawa N, Nakajima Y, Osawa M, Saito T, Seto Y, Nakano T, Saniabadi AR, Adachi M, Wang T, Nakajima K. Association of plasma triglyceride-rich lipoprotein remnants with coronary atherosclerosis in cases of sudden cardiac death. Atherosclerosis. 1999; 142(2):309-315. [DOI via Crossref]   
42. Karpe F, Boquist S, Tang R, Bond GM, de Faire U, Hamsten A. Remnant lipoproteins are related to intimamedia thickness of the carotid artery independently of LDL cholesterol and plasma triglycerides. J Lipid Res 2001; 42(1):17-21.
43. Abbott RD, Donahue RP, Kannel WB, Wilson PW. The impact of diabetes on survival following myocardial infarction in men vs women. The Framingham Study. JAMA. 1988; 260(23):3456-3460. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
44. Gordon DJ, Probstfield JL, Garrison RJ, Neaton JD, Castelli WP, Knoke JD, Jacobs DR Jr, Bangdiwala S, Tyroler HA. High–density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease. Four prospective American studies. Circulation. 1989; 79(1):8-15. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
45. Wilson PW, Garrison RJ, Castelli WP, Feinleib M, McNamara PM, Kannel WB. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in the Framingham Offspring Study: role of lipoprotein cholesterols. Am J Cardiol. 1980; 46(4):649-654. [DOI via Crossref]   
46. Assmann G, Schulte H, von Eckardstein A, Huang Y. High– density lipoprotein cholesterol as a predictor of coronary heart disease risk. The PROCAM experience and pathophysiological implications for reverse cholesterol transport. Atherosclerosis. 1996; 124(Suppl):S11-S20.
47. Libby P, Schoenbeck U, Mach F, Selwyn AP, Ganz P. Current concepts in cardiovascular pathology: the role of LDL cholesterol in plaque rupture and stabilization. Am J Med. 2002; 104(2A):14S-8S.
48. Stanger O, Fowler B, Piertzik K, Huemer M, HaschkeBecher E, Semmler A, Lorenzl S, Linnebank M. Homocysteine, folate and vitamin B12 in neuropsychiatric diseases: review and treatment recommendations. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009; 9(9):1393-1412. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
49. Hoffman M. Hypothesis: hyperhomocysteinemia is an indicator of oxidant stress. Med. Hypotheses. 2011; 77(6):1088-1193.
50. Lok A, Mocking RJ, Assies J, Koeter MW, Bockting CL, deVries GJ, Visser I, Derks EM, Kayser M, Schene AH. The one-carbon-cycle and methylenetetrahydrofolatereductase (MTHFR) C677T polymorphism in recurrent major depressive disorder; influence of antidepressant use and depressive state? J. Affect. Disord. 2014; 166:115-123.
51. Nabi H, Bochud M, Glaus J, Lasserre AM, Waeber G, Vollenweider P, Preisig M. Association of serum homocysteine with major depressive disorder: results from a large population-based study. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2013; 38(10):2309-2318. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
52. Wang ZM, Zhou B, Nie ZL, Gao W, Wang YS, Zhao H, Zhu J, Yan JJ, Yang ZJ, Wang LS. Folate and risk of coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2012; 22(10):890-899.
53. Humphrey LL, Fu R, Rogers K, Freeman M, Helfand M. Homocysteine level and coronary heart disease incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008; 83(11):1203-1212. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
54. Ueland PM, Refsum H, Beresford SA, Vollset SE. The controversy over homocysteine and cardiovascular risk. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 72(2):324-332.
55. van Guldener C, Nanayakkara PW, Stehouver CD. Homocysteine and blood pressure. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2003; 5(1):26-31. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
56. Raiko JR, Oikonen M, Wendelin-Saarenhovi M, Siitonen N, Kähonen M, Lehtimäki T, Viikari J, Jula A, Loo BM, Huupponen R, Saarikoski L, Juonala M, Raitakari OT. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 associates with cardiovascular risk factors in healthy young adults in the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Atherosclerosis. 2012; 224(1):208-212. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
57. Zhuang P, Wo D, Xu ZG, Wei W, Mao HM. Dynamic changes in plasma tissue plasminogen activator, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and beta- thromboglobulin content in ischemic stroke. J Clin Neurosci. 2015; 22(7):1123-1127. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
58. Tofler GH, Massaro J, O'Donnell CJ, Wilson PW, Vasan RS, Sutherland PA, Meigs JB, Levy D, D'Agostino RB Sr. Plasminogen activator inhibitor and the risk of cardiovascular disease: The Framingham Heart Study. Thrombosis Res. 2016; 140: 30-35. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
59. Lominadze D, Dean WL, Tyagi SC, Roberts AM. Mechanisms of fibrinogen-induced microvascular dysfunction during cardiovascular disease. Acta Physiologica (Oxf). 2010; 198(1):1-13. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]    [PMC Free Fulltext]   
60. Meade TW, Mellows S, Brozovic M, Miller GJ, Chakrabarti RR, North WR, Haines AP, Stirling Y, Imeson JD, Thompson SG. Haemostatic function and ischaemic heart disease: principal results of the Northwick Park Heart Study. Lancet. 1986; 2(8506):533-537. [DOI via Crossref]   
61. Lind M, Boman K, Johansson L, Nilsson TK, Järvholm LS, Jansson JH. D-dimer predicts major bleeding, cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality during warfarin treatment. Clin Biochem. 2014; 47(7-8):570-573.
62. Fruchter O, Yigla M, Kramer MR. D-dimer as a prognostic biomarker for mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation. Am J. Med. Sci. 2015; 349(1):29-35.
63. Nishida H, Horio T, Suzuki Y, Iwashima Y, Tokudome T, Yoshihara F, Nakamura S, Kawano Y. Interleukin-6 as an independent predictor of future cardiovascular events in high-risk Japanese patients: comparison with C-reactive protein. Cytokine. 2011; 53(3):342-346. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
64. Reichert S, Schlitt A, Benten AC, Hofmann B, Schaller HG, Schulz S. The interleukin 6 c.-174 CC genotype is a predictor for new cardiovascular events in patients with coronary heart disease within three years follow-up. Cytokine. 2016; 83:136-138. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   
65. Buraczynska M, Zukowski P, Drop B, BaranowiczGaszczyk I, Ksiazek A. Effect of G(-174)C polymorphism in interleukin-6 gene on cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes patients. Cytokine. 2016; 79:7-11. [DOI via Crossref]    [Pubmed]   

This Article Cited By the following articles

Classification Comparison of Machine Learning Algorithms Using Two Independent CAD Datasets
Mathematics 2022; 10(3): 311.

1
 
Application of quality by design approach for HPTLC simultaneous determination of amlodipine and celecoxib in presence of process-related impurity
Microchemical Journal 2021; 162(): 105857.

2
 
Effects of AGXT2 variants on blood pressure and blood sugar among 750 older Japanese subjects recruited by the complete enumeration survey method
BMC Genomics 2021; 22(1): .

3
 
Improved lipidomic profile mediates the effects of adherence to healthy lifestyles on coronary heart disease
2021; 10(): .

4
 
Gene polymorphism of 3'APO-VNTR in Egyptians with coronary artery disease
J Med Biochemistry 2021; 40(4): 390.

5
 

2020; (): 229.

6
 
A critical review on diet-induced microbiota changes and cardiovascular diseases
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 2020; 60(17): 2914.

7
 
Physical Blending Characteristic of Fish Oil and Sesame Oil
IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 2019; 246(): 012054.

8
 

2019; (): 1.

9
 
A critical review on diet-induced microbiota changes and cardiovascular diseases
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 2019; (): 1.

10
 
How to Cite this Article
Pubmed Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen. Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors. J Med Allied Sci. 2016; 6(2): 46-51. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597

Web Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen. Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors. https://jmas.in/?mno=228597 [Access: January 11, 2023]. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen. Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors. J Med Allied Sci. 2016; 6(2): 46-51. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597


Vancouver/ICMJE Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen. Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors. J Med Allied Sci. (2016), [cited January 11, 2023]; 6(2): 46-51. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597


Harvard Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen (2016) Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors. J Med Allied Sci, 6 (2), 46-51. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597


Turabian Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen. 2016. Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors. Journal of Medical and Allied Sciences, 6 (2), 46-51. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597


Chicago Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen. "Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors." Journal of Medical and Allied Sciences 6 (2016), 46-51. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597


MLA (The Modern Language Association) Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen. "Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors." Journal of Medical and Allied Sciences 6.2 (2016), 46-51. Print. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597


APA (American Psychological Association) Style

Chittakath Shaima, Puthamohan Vinayaga Moorthi, Naser Kutty Shaheen (2016) Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors. Journal of Medical and Allied Sciences, 6 (2), 46-51. doi:10.5455/jmas.228597


Author LoginReviewer LoginAbout PublisherPeer Review PolicyEditorial & Peer Review ProcessConflict of Interest PolicyAdvertising PolicyLicense InformationCopyright Information
Copyright © 2023 Journal of Medical and Allied Sciences All Rights Reserved. Subject to change without notice from or liability to Journal of Medical and Allied Sciences.
For best results, please use Internet Explorer or Google Chrome

Contact Information


By regular mail/speed post/courier

Dr. Nazia Uzma
Editor, JMAS,
Deccan College of Medical Sciences,
DMRL ‘X’ Road, Kanchanbagh (PO),
Hyderabad-500 058, Telangana, India.

By email: editorialoffice@jmas.in

By phone: +91 40 24340225, 24340129

By fax: +91 40 24340235